Introduction
Before setting out on researching professional articles, I could not help but reflect on my own experiences in regards to problem behaviors. Growing up, I always heard stories from my parents and my grandparents about their experiences in public education. My grandfather never misbehaved. He grew up in a small town in South Carolina and was a part of a high school graduating class of no more than 10 (yes, t-e-n) students. My grandmother recalled how many times she received a firm slap on the wrist from her teacher whenever she spoke out of turn or was misbehaving in class. My parents were spared physical punishment at school, but hardly acted out of line knowing that their parents would not shy away from discipline at home. Accordingly, I attempted to maintain good behavior in school under the stern guidance of my parents, passed down through generations.
Of course, my personal experiences with classroom behavior cannot so easily transfer to the experiences of my students. If differentiation in education has taught us anything, it is that instruction of students in the classroom environment cannot be defined by one singular method. The same is to be said for managing classroom behavior. Some of my students raise their hand before they wish to speak. Others bypass that method and call out. Some of my students are quiet when they are asked to be. Others talk more words per minute than I can count. My hope is that through research and applied action plans I can create a proactive learning community in which my students will respect each other and learn to work effectively and productively through positive behavior support.
Then the questions are, how could you define a "proactive learning community"? What is "positive behavior support"? What evidence is there to support the effectiveness of these environments? These questions must be addressed before I begin developing my action plan.
Of course, my personal experiences with classroom behavior cannot so easily transfer to the experiences of my students. If differentiation in education has taught us anything, it is that instruction of students in the classroom environment cannot be defined by one singular method. The same is to be said for managing classroom behavior. Some of my students raise their hand before they wish to speak. Others bypass that method and call out. Some of my students are quiet when they are asked to be. Others talk more words per minute than I can count. My hope is that through research and applied action plans I can create a proactive learning community in which my students will respect each other and learn to work effectively and productively through positive behavior support.
Then the questions are, how could you define a "proactive learning community"? What is "positive behavior support"? What evidence is there to support the effectiveness of these environments? These questions must be addressed before I begin developing my action plan.
Background
Clearly, addressing problem behaviors in the classroom has evolved dramatically since my grandparents were in high school. Throughout most of the 20th century, problem behaviors were treated, like the name would suggest, as a problem. Major shifts in the treatment of problem behaviors did not occur until the early 1990s, at which point research regarding the effect of punishment on student performance began to increase dramatically. Researchers developed strategies and models designed around positive reinforcement rather than office conferences and referral issuances to encourage proactive behavior in classrooms (Colvin & Kameenui, 1993). The scope of these studies was severely limited by the early desire to develop school-wide behavior policies for all general and special education teachers to adhere to. There also remained a bad habit of associating problem behaviors almost exclusively with students from low income households or students with special needs.
The teacher is solely responsible for discovering the most effective techniques of decreasing problem behaviors in the classroom. Consistently reinforcing useful techniques, I feel, will help establish a clear authority in the classroom—one that my students can trust and relate to. What specific techniques fall in line with these behavior ideals? Trussell (2008) developed several strategies of his own (based on empirical studies) that are built upon the ideas of "positive behavior support" and "functional behavior assessment." Simple strategies such as "instructional time" and "wait time" may provide venues not only for the reduction of problem behaviors, but also for an increase in student learning. With instructional time, Trussell recommends that teachers use 40-50% of class time for direct instruction, or speaking in front of the class and having conversations. These opportunities should not be wasted on lecturing, but rather spent on engaging lesson content (Roberson, Woolsey, Seabrooks, & Williams, 2004; Wallace, Anderson, Bartholomay, & Hupp, 2002). With wait time, teachers should give their students ample opportunity to reflect on questions or scenarios posed by their teachers. Rather than calling on a student as soon as their hand is raised, wait at least 3 seconds to give students time to think meta-cognitively and deepen their thinking and understanding (Tobin, 1987). There are a plethora of other techniques described by Trussell, but these two seem to sync well with my current pedagogy. Of course, I may find that these strategies may not be conducive to my classroom population, but I will remain flexible and dependent on the response of my students and the effects these strategies have on their learning. To understand the effectiveness of these strategies more, it is important to understand the main ideas of "positive behavior support" and "functional behavior assessment."
The teacher is solely responsible for discovering the most effective techniques of decreasing problem behaviors in the classroom. Consistently reinforcing useful techniques, I feel, will help establish a clear authority in the classroom—one that my students can trust and relate to. What specific techniques fall in line with these behavior ideals? Trussell (2008) developed several strategies of his own (based on empirical studies) that are built upon the ideas of "positive behavior support" and "functional behavior assessment." Simple strategies such as "instructional time" and "wait time" may provide venues not only for the reduction of problem behaviors, but also for an increase in student learning. With instructional time, Trussell recommends that teachers use 40-50% of class time for direct instruction, or speaking in front of the class and having conversations. These opportunities should not be wasted on lecturing, but rather spent on engaging lesson content (Roberson, Woolsey, Seabrooks, & Williams, 2004; Wallace, Anderson, Bartholomay, & Hupp, 2002). With wait time, teachers should give their students ample opportunity to reflect on questions or scenarios posed by their teachers. Rather than calling on a student as soon as their hand is raised, wait at least 3 seconds to give students time to think meta-cognitively and deepen their thinking and understanding (Tobin, 1987). There are a plethora of other techniques described by Trussell, but these two seem to sync well with my current pedagogy. Of course, I may find that these strategies may not be conducive to my classroom population, but I will remain flexible and dependent on the response of my students and the effects these strategies have on their learning. To understand the effectiveness of these strategies more, it is important to understand the main ideas of "positive behavior support" and "functional behavior assessment."
PBS and FBA
As I began researching about the role of behavior in the classroom, I came across a wealth of literature concerning two consistent approaches. At the turn of the century, advancements were being made towards the inclusion of all students in what is now officially being coined, "positive behavior support" (PBS; IDEA, Sec. 300.D.a). As a result, problem behaviors were no longer limited to students with special needs or "at-risk" students, and it was understood that students could exhibit problem behaviors for any number of reasons. Furthermore, there were certain aspects of PBS that needed to be appropriate and relevant to each individual students, including, but not limited to: behavioral science, practical interventions, lifestyle outcomes, and systems perspective (Sugai, et al., 2000). Allow me to illustrate these published theories with a hypothetical example. Brian, a student in Mr. Robinson's 9th grade English class, never raises his hand to speak and is always interrupting his instruction. Before the advent of PBS, Mr. Robinson might simply give Brian an after-school detention along with any other student who chooses to follow in Brian's footsteps. However, with PBS, Mr. Robinson is encouraged to explore Brian's home life, culture, and the context in which these disruptions occur in order to better assess the causes and work positively towards a solution. There is no cookie cutter solution for problem behaviors, but rather an organized system to help guide instruction towards making a positive impact on students.
PBS was not formally recognized until 2004 with the passage of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), and even still was not all too specific. There was only a call for educators to "improve their knowledge of" or "consider using" positive behavior supports; no specific framework for how this was supposedly to be accomplished (IDEA, 2004). This was a step forward from the ideas of the previous generation, which seemed to only focus on select populations of students. With IDEA's introduction of the "functional behavior assessment" (FBA; a positive, problem-solving process in which educators work with students, administrators and parents to appropriately address problem behavior in the classroom), individualized education program (IEP), and Section 504 plans, educators and legislators moved a step closer towards providing equal opportunities for all students to succeed in school.
Several studies further reveal and specify the benefits of PBS and FBA approaches in the classroom. The use of FBA proves to be a positive method in which to improve student self-management and academically engaging behavior, especially within students who perform problem behaviors to seek attention, achieved through specifying behavior strategies to be practiced by the student at all times in the classroom (Brooks, Todd, Tofflemoyer, & Horner, 2003). The need for the FBA to be functional is also crucial to the success of PBS and FBA. Any time behaviors are identified, but are not logically addressed and managed both during and outside of class time results in lower levels of behavior prevention and correction. In other words, simply notifying a student of a problem behavior is not going to ensure that the student will terminate said behavior (Ingram, Lewis-Palmer, & Sugai, 2005). It is also suggested that teachers perform person-centered planning, which, "focuses on identifying a range of personal characteristics, abilities, and supports that are necessary for an individual to succeed in typical settings" (Kennedy, et al., 2001). By having the teachers themselves perform this planning, students were observed to increase levels of academic participation in the classroom (Kennedy, et al., 2001).
Recent studies have confirmed the success of PBS and FBA. Goh and Bambara (2012) conducted a meta-analysis of some of the most recent studies on these techniques: "FBA-based interventions were found to be effective in reducing problem behaviors and increasing appropriate skills across diverse student populations and educational settings, including inclusive classrooms." Each article involved some level of intervention as a response to problem behavior, but as the meta-analysis reveals, the divergent theme is that problem behaviors are no longer confined to particular student groups as they had the tendency to be a couple decades ago (Goh & Bambara 2012). These intervention techniques should be used as opposed to strategies such as making examples of students in front of the class (Reese, 2007). I will use PBS to guide the development of my action plan and ensure these questions are all answered in the affirmative (which I extracted from a PBS article):
PBS was not formally recognized until 2004 with the passage of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), and even still was not all too specific. There was only a call for educators to "improve their knowledge of" or "consider using" positive behavior supports; no specific framework for how this was supposedly to be accomplished (IDEA, 2004). This was a step forward from the ideas of the previous generation, which seemed to only focus on select populations of students. With IDEA's introduction of the "functional behavior assessment" (FBA; a positive, problem-solving process in which educators work with students, administrators and parents to appropriately address problem behavior in the classroom), individualized education program (IEP), and Section 504 plans, educators and legislators moved a step closer towards providing equal opportunities for all students to succeed in school.
Several studies further reveal and specify the benefits of PBS and FBA approaches in the classroom. The use of FBA proves to be a positive method in which to improve student self-management and academically engaging behavior, especially within students who perform problem behaviors to seek attention, achieved through specifying behavior strategies to be practiced by the student at all times in the classroom (Brooks, Todd, Tofflemoyer, & Horner, 2003). The need for the FBA to be functional is also crucial to the success of PBS and FBA. Any time behaviors are identified, but are not logically addressed and managed both during and outside of class time results in lower levels of behavior prevention and correction. In other words, simply notifying a student of a problem behavior is not going to ensure that the student will terminate said behavior (Ingram, Lewis-Palmer, & Sugai, 2005). It is also suggested that teachers perform person-centered planning, which, "focuses on identifying a range of personal characteristics, abilities, and supports that are necessary for an individual to succeed in typical settings" (Kennedy, et al., 2001). By having the teachers themselves perform this planning, students were observed to increase levels of academic participation in the classroom (Kennedy, et al., 2001).
Recent studies have confirmed the success of PBS and FBA. Goh and Bambara (2012) conducted a meta-analysis of some of the most recent studies on these techniques: "FBA-based interventions were found to be effective in reducing problem behaviors and increasing appropriate skills across diverse student populations and educational settings, including inclusive classrooms." Each article involved some level of intervention as a response to problem behavior, but as the meta-analysis reveals, the divergent theme is that problem behaviors are no longer confined to particular student groups as they had the tendency to be a couple decades ago (Goh & Bambara 2012). These intervention techniques should be used as opposed to strategies such as making examples of students in front of the class (Reese, 2007). I will use PBS to guide the development of my action plan and ensure these questions are all answered in the affirmative (which I extracted from a PBS article):
- Have I assessed all aspects of my interventions with students, including behavioral science, practical interventions, lifestyle outcomes, and systems perspective?
- Are my strategies focused on student learning?
- Are my strategies designed around avoiding humiliation and counterproductive disciplinary measures (such as sending students to see the principal)?
- Do my interventions have a purpose? Are they working towards an identifiable goal? (Reese, 2007)
Leadership
Another prevalent theme in my literature review is the effect of strong leadership in schools and classrooms. This theme was what repeatedly framed the way teachers should manage their classrooms, beyond the specifics of PBA and FBS. In my experience, leaders are an integral part of the classroom environment and are essential to ensure that students are guided towards a successful learning experience while they are in school. In fact, recent research suggests that strong leadership is one of the cornerstones of developing productive learning in schools today. "If teachers see themselves as leaders and are eager to grow and develop professionally with their peers and colleagues, then there would be a much greater support for productive classroom environments" (Sheppard & Dibbon, 2011). The key theme of this research is the ability of teachers to develop not only with peers and colleagues, but with parents and other community members as well. In other words, teachers need to be proactive in order to achieve productive learning environments—these are essential qualities of strong leadership. These ideas will guide my action plan ideas moving forward when considering that pedagogical improvement cannot develop in a vacuum (my classroom). It will be essential for me to reach out to other staff, administration, and parents to help develop effective plans for reducing problem behavior in my classroom and developing strong, positive learning communities.
Along with promoting and participating in professional development, there are several other leadership dimensions that have proven effective in promoting student success: establishing goals and expectations, resourcing strategically, planning, coordinating and evaluating teaching and the curriculum, and ensuring an orderly and ensuring environment (Robinson, Lloyd, & Rowe, 2008). I have my doubts that any one teacher is able to master all of these dimensions within the scope of their careers, but I have been made certain that by simply focusing on one or a combination of dimensions could help improve student outcomes in the classroom. I will use these dimensions as frameworks for my action plan as I devise strategies for use in my classroom.
Along with promoting and participating in professional development, there are several other leadership dimensions that have proven effective in promoting student success: establishing goals and expectations, resourcing strategically, planning, coordinating and evaluating teaching and the curriculum, and ensuring an orderly and ensuring environment (Robinson, Lloyd, & Rowe, 2008). I have my doubts that any one teacher is able to master all of these dimensions within the scope of their careers, but I have been made certain that by simply focusing on one or a combination of dimensions could help improve student outcomes in the classroom. I will use these dimensions as frameworks for my action plan as I devise strategies for use in my classroom.
Teacher Expectations, Perceptions, and Goals
Beyond PBS and strong leadership, there is strong evidence within educational psychology that provides insight towards how teacher expectation is an important dimension for reducing problem behaviors and promoting positive, productive learning communities. Much of this research has to do with teacher expectations in the classroom. It has been found that it is more important for teachers to establish and teach behavior expectations according to grade/age level. By doing so, consistent rates of reinforcement of positive behavior will be achieved. This reinforces the exhibition of positive behavior in the classroom and sets up a model that all students can be held accountable to (Lane, Pierson, Stang, & Carter, 2010). This has developed from the old perception of forming teacher expectations of students accordingly to factors such as race, culture, gender, or socioeconomic status. I am going to ensure that I maintain equal expectation levels for all of my students unless necessarily altered via 504 plans or IEPs. The danger here, of course, is potentially making students feel less capable their peers. Just a few days ago, one of my students publicly decried that a quiz was too difficult because of a time constraint and that he should be given more time due to a specification within his IEP. It was my mistake not to speak to him privately beforehand and I must admit I was a bit embarrassed at his exclamation. However, it only revealed to me that in order for all of my students to truly feel as equals in the classroom, I will need to communicate clear expectations both to the entire student population as well as specific individuals as necessary.
Aside from simply establishing teacher expectations, there is also a strong correlation between teacher expectations and teacher perceptions of student attributes. In other words, teachers that have high expectations for their students also share the perceptions that their students have a great capacity to learn and grow in their classroom (Rubie-Davies, 2010). Furthermore, it was found that "[High expectation] teachers had students working in mixed-ability groups, promoted student autonomy in learning activities, carefully explained new concepts, provided students with clear feedback, managed behaviour [sic] positively, and asked large numbers of open questions" (Rubie-Davies, 2010). The focus for teachers in the classroom should be on promoting student skill-building through high-achieving lesson plans and activities. This study has helped me realize that I oftentimes reduce the rigor of my classroom activities knowing I will have to deal with the challenges of problem behaviors in my class. However, it will be important for me to maintain high expectations for all my students while simultaneously developing intervention plans for problem behaviors in my classroom.
Another perspective on teacher expectations and student performance comes from a study on mastery goal structure, or the perception that students' real learning and understanding, rather than just memorization, are valued. This is especially important within my personal context of social science as recent research calls for a movement away from simple textbook coverage (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). In order for students to be oriented towards content mastery, it is important for the social climate of the classroom to be a positive one. The teacher needs to enjoy teaching and the students' perceptions of their teacher must be both positive and helpful. Further study shows that there is a redundancy between the social climate of the classroom and the mastery orientation of students. That is, students become oriented to a mastery goal structure when a teacher displays a clear passion for both teaching and pedagogical content knowledge (Patrick, Kaplan, & Ryan, 2011). "A teacher should enjoy teaching" may seem like an obvious statement, but just because a teacher enjoys teaching does not mean that his or her students feel the same way. Teaching therefore needs to appear as a passion to students in order for them to be more engaged and likely to help create a productive learning environment.
Further research has led me to a plethora of other articles designed around reducing problem behaviors in the classroom. One such article struck a chord with me in that the constructs were originally designed for a music class. Being a musician myself, I understand the importance of cooperation and positive behavior in order to achieve goals, and I believe Reese's (2007) concept of the "Four Cs" of successful classroom management can be applied to my own teaching in social science. These guidelines are founded upon empirical research, but were fine-tuned for a specific classroom. The focus here is on a positive, but also caring and nurturing classroom environment focused on commendation, communication, consistency, and content. In order to curb disruptive behavior, Reese maintains the importance of the teacher remaining introspective towards their own methods of handling such disruptions. By establishing clear expectations and focusing exclusively on content, teachers will increase the likelihood of successful management of classroom behavior.
Aside from simply establishing teacher expectations, there is also a strong correlation between teacher expectations and teacher perceptions of student attributes. In other words, teachers that have high expectations for their students also share the perceptions that their students have a great capacity to learn and grow in their classroom (Rubie-Davies, 2010). Furthermore, it was found that "[High expectation] teachers had students working in mixed-ability groups, promoted student autonomy in learning activities, carefully explained new concepts, provided students with clear feedback, managed behaviour [sic] positively, and asked large numbers of open questions" (Rubie-Davies, 2010). The focus for teachers in the classroom should be on promoting student skill-building through high-achieving lesson plans and activities. This study has helped me realize that I oftentimes reduce the rigor of my classroom activities knowing I will have to deal with the challenges of problem behaviors in my class. However, it will be important for me to maintain high expectations for all my students while simultaneously developing intervention plans for problem behaviors in my classroom.
Another perspective on teacher expectations and student performance comes from a study on mastery goal structure, or the perception that students' real learning and understanding, rather than just memorization, are valued. This is especially important within my personal context of social science as recent research calls for a movement away from simple textbook coverage (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). In order for students to be oriented towards content mastery, it is important for the social climate of the classroom to be a positive one. The teacher needs to enjoy teaching and the students' perceptions of their teacher must be both positive and helpful. Further study shows that there is a redundancy between the social climate of the classroom and the mastery orientation of students. That is, students become oriented to a mastery goal structure when a teacher displays a clear passion for both teaching and pedagogical content knowledge (Patrick, Kaplan, & Ryan, 2011). "A teacher should enjoy teaching" may seem like an obvious statement, but just because a teacher enjoys teaching does not mean that his or her students feel the same way. Teaching therefore needs to appear as a passion to students in order for them to be more engaged and likely to help create a productive learning environment.
Further research has led me to a plethora of other articles designed around reducing problem behaviors in the classroom. One such article struck a chord with me in that the constructs were originally designed for a music class. Being a musician myself, I understand the importance of cooperation and positive behavior in order to achieve goals, and I believe Reese's (2007) concept of the "Four Cs" of successful classroom management can be applied to my own teaching in social science. These guidelines are founded upon empirical research, but were fine-tuned for a specific classroom. The focus here is on a positive, but also caring and nurturing classroom environment focused on commendation, communication, consistency, and content. In order to curb disruptive behavior, Reese maintains the importance of the teacher remaining introspective towards their own methods of handling such disruptions. By establishing clear expectations and focusing exclusively on content, teachers will increase the likelihood of successful management of classroom behavior.
Summary
Research can be overwhelming in the sense that it feels like every research as the best, most proven method of pedagogy for use in the classroom. The challenge for teachers is to completely understand these pedagogies and determine which strategy will work and become the most successful in their classroom. Considering each and every student enters school with a unique set of baggage (difficult home life, strained relationships, etc.), these pedagogies will only be effective if a teacher can correctly identify student needs. In my introduction, I conducted a variety of needs assessments of my students. Reading about things like PBS, FBA, leadership, and teacher expectations introduced me to a vast compilation of findings that have assisted me in further developing my research questions. Here is a summary of the key points of my literature review:
- Positive behavior support is crucial to help reduce problem behaviors in a productive manner. This can be achieved through student-centered planning, functional based assessment, and a focus on student learning. (Sugai, et al., 2000; Kennedy, et al., 2001; Goh & Bambara, 2012; Reese, 2007)
- Strong leadership qualities practiced by both the teacher and the students, along with strategic resourcing of work and teaching evaluation, will lead to a productive classroom environment (Sheppard & Dibbon, 2011; Robinson, Lloyd, & Rowe, 2008)
- Clearly established and reinforced classroom goals will lead to a greater amount of student participation and reduction of problem behaviors. (Lane, Pierson, Stang, & Carter, 2010)
- When teachers maintain a positive relationship with and perception of students and their abilities, students are more likely to be actively engaged in learning activities. (Rubie-Davies, 2010; Patrick, Kaplan, & Ryan, 2011)
Works Cited
Brooks, A., Todd, A. W., Tofflemoyer, S., & Horner, R. H. (2003). Use of Functional Assessment and a Self-Management System to Increase Academic Engagement and Work Completion. Journal Of Positive Behavior Interventions, 5(3), 144-152.
Colvin, G., & Kameenui, E. J. (1993). Reconceptualizing behavior management and school-wide discipline and general education. Education & Treatment Of Children (ETC), 16(4), 361.
Goh, A. E., & Bambara, L. M. (2012). Individualized Positive Behavior Support in School Settings: A Meta-Analysis. Remedial and Special Education, 33(5), 271-286.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. (2004). Section 654.a.3.B.iii.I. Accessed from: http://idea.ed.gov/
Ingram, K., Lewis-Palmer, T., & Sugai, G. (2005). Function-Based Intervention Planning: Comparing the Effectiveness of FBA Function-Based and Non--Function-Based Intervention Plans. Journal Of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7(4), 224-236.
Kennedy, C. H., Long, T., Jolivette, K., Cox, J., Jung-Chang, T., & Thompson, T. (2001). Facilitating General Education Participation for Students with Behavior Problems by Linking Positive Behavior Supports and Person-Centered Planning. Journal Of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders, 9(3), 161.
Lane, K., Pierson, M. R., Stang, K. K., & Carter, E. W. (2010). Teacher Expectations of Students’ Classroom Behavior. Remedial & Special Education, 31(3), 163-174.
Patrick, H., Kaplan, A., & Ryan, A. M. (2011). Positive classroom motivational environments: Convergence between mastery goal structure and classroom social climate. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 103(2), 376-382.
Pink, Daniel H. (2011). Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us. New York: Riverhead.
Reese, J. (2007). The Four Cs of Successful Classroom management. Music Educators Journal, 94(1), 24-29.
Roberson, L., Woolsey, M. L., Seabrooks, J., & Williams, G. (2004). An ecobehavioral assessment of the teaching behaviors of teacher candidates during their special education internship experiences. Teacher Education and Special Education, 27, 264–275.
Robinson, V. J., Lloyd, C. A., & Rowe, K. J. (2008). The Impact of Leadership on Student Outcomes: An Analysis of the Differential Effects of Leadership Types. Educational Administration Quarterly, 44(5), 635-674.
Rubie-Davies, C. M. (2010). Teacher expectations and perceptions of student attributes: Is there a relationship? British Journal Of Educational Psychology, 80(1), 121-135.
Sheppard, B., & Dibbon, D. (2011). Improving the Capacity of School System Leaders and Teachers to Design Productive Learning Environments. Leadership & Policy In Schools, 10(2). 125-144.
Sugai, G., Horner, R.H., Dunlap, G., Hieneman, M., Nelson, C., Scott, T., & … Ruef, M. (2000). Applying Positive Behavior Support and Functional Behavioral Assessment in Schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2(3), 131-143.
Tobin, K. (1987). The influence of wait time on classroom learning. European Journal of Science Education, 5(1), 35–48.
Trussell, R. P. (2008). Classroom Universals to Prevent Problem Behaviors. Intervention In School & Clinic, 43(3), 179-185.
Wallace, T., Anderson, A. R., Bartholomay, T., & Hupp, S. (2002). An ecobehavioral examination of high school classrooms that include students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 68, 345–359.
Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by Design (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Colvin, G., & Kameenui, E. J. (1993). Reconceptualizing behavior management and school-wide discipline and general education. Education & Treatment Of Children (ETC), 16(4), 361.
Goh, A. E., & Bambara, L. M. (2012). Individualized Positive Behavior Support in School Settings: A Meta-Analysis. Remedial and Special Education, 33(5), 271-286.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. (2004). Section 654.a.3.B.iii.I. Accessed from: http://idea.ed.gov/
Ingram, K., Lewis-Palmer, T., & Sugai, G. (2005). Function-Based Intervention Planning: Comparing the Effectiveness of FBA Function-Based and Non--Function-Based Intervention Plans. Journal Of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7(4), 224-236.
Kennedy, C. H., Long, T., Jolivette, K., Cox, J., Jung-Chang, T., & Thompson, T. (2001). Facilitating General Education Participation for Students with Behavior Problems by Linking Positive Behavior Supports and Person-Centered Planning. Journal Of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders, 9(3), 161.
Lane, K., Pierson, M. R., Stang, K. K., & Carter, E. W. (2010). Teacher Expectations of Students’ Classroom Behavior. Remedial & Special Education, 31(3), 163-174.
Patrick, H., Kaplan, A., & Ryan, A. M. (2011). Positive classroom motivational environments: Convergence between mastery goal structure and classroom social climate. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 103(2), 376-382.
Pink, Daniel H. (2011). Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us. New York: Riverhead.
Reese, J. (2007). The Four Cs of Successful Classroom management. Music Educators Journal, 94(1), 24-29.
Roberson, L., Woolsey, M. L., Seabrooks, J., & Williams, G. (2004). An ecobehavioral assessment of the teaching behaviors of teacher candidates during their special education internship experiences. Teacher Education and Special Education, 27, 264–275.
Robinson, V. J., Lloyd, C. A., & Rowe, K. J. (2008). The Impact of Leadership on Student Outcomes: An Analysis of the Differential Effects of Leadership Types. Educational Administration Quarterly, 44(5), 635-674.
Rubie-Davies, C. M. (2010). Teacher expectations and perceptions of student attributes: Is there a relationship? British Journal Of Educational Psychology, 80(1), 121-135.
Sheppard, B., & Dibbon, D. (2011). Improving the Capacity of School System Leaders and Teachers to Design Productive Learning Environments. Leadership & Policy In Schools, 10(2). 125-144.
Sugai, G., Horner, R.H., Dunlap, G., Hieneman, M., Nelson, C., Scott, T., & … Ruef, M. (2000). Applying Positive Behavior Support and Functional Behavioral Assessment in Schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2(3), 131-143.
Tobin, K. (1987). The influence of wait time on classroom learning. European Journal of Science Education, 5(1), 35–48.
Trussell, R. P. (2008). Classroom Universals to Prevent Problem Behaviors. Intervention In School & Clinic, 43(3), 179-185.
Wallace, T., Anderson, A. R., Bartholomay, T., & Hupp, S. (2002). An ecobehavioral examination of high school classrooms that include students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 68, 345–359.
Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by Design (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.